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Use of commas in numbers

数字の表記について
◎ Use of commas in numbers
Commas are used almost always for numbers of six or more digits, and optionally for five (or even four) digits.

For example,
3,460,759
34,578
4,940
Please check your journal’s style guide for this rule, especially in four and five digit numbers.

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Unclear pronouns

Academic Style: Unclear pronouns

When writing an academic paper, “ambiguous” words and phrases should be avoided. The use of unclear pronouns (e.g., it, this, and them) that could refer to more than one thing or situation is a common case of ambiguity.

Ambiguous: Carry the nuts and bolts in two separate containers. Before lifting them, make sure your gloves are on.
Here, it is unclear what “them” refers to. “Them” could mean the (a) nuts, (b) bolts, (c) nuts and bolts, or (d) the containers.

If the author is referring to the containers, the following sentence should be used:
Clear: Carry the nuts and bolts in two separate containers. Before lifting the containers, make sure your gloves are on.

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Inclusive page numbers

[195]
ジャーナルフォーマット：ページ番号について

Journal Formatting: Inclusive page numbers

When the guidelines for end-list references state that the page numbers should be inclusive, it implies that the first page and the last page of the article should be mentioned.

For example, 421–435 or 421–35. Both these representations include the first page and the last page.
Some journals specify that only the first page of the article (noninclusive page numbers) should be provided. In that case, you would write only 421 instead of 421–435 or 421–35.


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Avoid wordiness

くどい表現について

Wordiness in academic writing

In academic writing, it is best to avoid wordy constructions to express your meaning as clearly as possible. Given below are few examples of how wordy constructions can be replaced with more concise words or phrases.
“Concerning the matter of”  “About”
“During the course of”  “During”
“Due to the fact that”  “Because”
“In the event that”  “If”

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Usage of articles with techniques and method names

冠詞の使い方
Usage of articles (a/an/the) in technique and method names

Technique or method names such as “microscopy” and “spectroscopy” are uncountable nouns and do not take articles. However, equipment names such as “microscope” and “spectroscope” will take articles.

That is,
Incorrect: After identifying the locations of the spots, we removed the glass cover and examined the cathode surface using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Correct: After identifying the locations of the spots, we removed the glass cover and examined the cathode surface using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Correct: After identifying the locations of the spots, we removed the glass cover and examined the cathode surface using a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

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Usage of "as well as"

“as well as”の利用について

◎Usage of “as well as”

The phrase “as well as” is used when you want to mention another item connected with the subject you are discussing. However, note that it does not substitute the word “and”; that is, it does not compound/join words, phrases, or clauses. When using this phrase, the noun placed before “as well as” determines the number.

For example,

Incorrect: Dopamine, as well as norepinephrine, are a link between noradrenergic nerve terminals and splenocytes.

Correct: Dopamine, as well as norepinephrine, is a link between noradrenergic nerve terminals and splenocytes.

Also correct: Free radicals as well as nonradical oxidants are involved in the oxidative modification of LDL in vivo.

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Usage of commas in dates

日付に使用するコンマについて(I)

◎Usage of commas in dates

In American English, comma usage in dates depends on the date style.
If the date is given as month, day, year, then place a comma after the day and the year.

For example,
Thank you for your decision letter dated October 4, 2007, regarding the manuscript…
*Do not use commas when there is no mention of the day.
For example, Plutonium was discovered in March 1940.

In British English, comma is placed only after the year to set the date off from the remainder of the sentence.

For example,
Thank you for your decision letter dated 4 October 2007, regarding the manuscript…


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Words not to capitalize in a title

タイトルの大文字について

◎Which words should not be capitalized in a title?

Follow these guidelines to decide which words NOT TO capitalize in a title (unless they are the first or the last words in a title).
--articles (a, an, the)
--coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet)
--the word “to” that marks infinitives (to walk, to run, to play)
--prepositions (stylistic: some style guides advocate capitalizing longer prepositions, e.g., between, among, throughout)

Example: Direct Determination of the Energy Required to Operate a Single Molecule Switch

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Usage of the term "Overview"

“Overview” の使い方

◎Usage of Overview

An “overview” of a situation is a general understanding or description of it as a whole. This word should only be used as a noun, and not a verb. That is,

Incorrect: This paper overviews the properties of long wavelength optical amplifiers.
Correct: This paper presents an overview of the properties of long wavelength optical amplifiers.

In the incorrect example, “overview” can also be replaced by a suitable verb, such as “review” or “examine.” That is,

Also correct: This paper reviews the properties of long wavelength optical amplifiers.

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"Incident" or "Incidence" - What to use?

“Incident” と “Incidence” について

Incident: An incident is something that happens, often something that is unpleasant.

Example: In that incident the level of contamination of the maize involved was between 6 and 16 ppm.

Incidence: The incidence of something bad, such as a disease, is the frequency with which it occurs, or the occasions when it occurs.

Example: The incidence of histologically proved hepatocellular carcinoma increased to 1.4 per 100,000 population

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Farther vs. Further

“Farther” と “Further” について

◎Farther vs. Further

Farther and further are both comparative forms of `far'. Farthest and furthest are the superlative forms.

When you are talking about distance, you can use any of these forms.

Example: Birds were able to find food by flying farther and farther.
Example: The sun is then at its furthest point to the south.

However, when you are talking about the degree or extent of something, you can only use further or furthest.

Example: He needed to develop his reading further.

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"Beside" vs. "Besides" - What is the difference?

“Beside” と “Besides” について

◎Beside vs. Besides

Beside: If one thing is beside another, it is next to it or at the side of it.
Example: Beside the shed was a huge wire birdcage.

Besides: Besides means “in addition to” or “as well as.”
Example: What languages do you know besides Japanese and English?

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"Collaborate" vs. "Cooperate"

“Collaborate” と “Cooperate” について

◎Collaborate vs. Cooperate

Collaborate: When people collaborate on a project, they work together in order to produce something. For example, two writers can collaborate to produce a single piece of writing.
Example: Anthony and I are collaborating on a paper for the conference.

Cooperate: When people cooperate, they help each other.
Example: They are willing to cooperate in the training of medical personnel.

If you cooperate with someone who asks for your help, you help them.
Example: The editors agreed to cooperate.

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Whether to use "change of" or "change in"?

“change of” と “change in”について

◎Use “change of” when you are speaking of things at a macro level, and use “change in” when you are speaking of things at a micro level.

“Change of the process” implies that the whole process changes, while “change in the process” implies that something in the process changes.

Incorrect: The FT-IR spectra showed no change of the C=O band.
Correct: The FT-IR spectra showed no change in the C=O band.

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Tip for selecting keywords

◎Key words

Proper names, specific procedures or techniques, outcome areas, capitalized events and eras, titles of books or articles, and definitions make the best key words.

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Capitalization of seasons

◎Capitalization of seasons

Do not capitalize the names of seasons when they are used in a general sense.
Exception: They can be capitalized when used with another noun and function as proper nouns.
For example: spring, fall, Spring term
Seasons can also be capitalized when used in a title, e.g., The Fall 1999 semester
Note: For university applications, be sure to check the in-house style guide for capitalization of seasons. Several universities insist on using lower casing for seasons.

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Capitalization of geographic terms

◎Capitalization of geographic terms
Divisions of the earth’s surface: Cap the names of the great divisions of the earth’s surface; also the names of distinct regions or districts.

For example,
Arctic Circle
North Pole
Great Divide
Tropic of Cancer

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Avoiding redundancy (III)

◎Redundancy-III
The prepositional phrases in certain expressions can be redundant and should be deleted.

For example,
Big in size
Biography of his life
Few in number

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Avoiding redundacy (II)

冗長 - II
◎Redundancy-II

The word “both” is often used redundantly; it should be omitted in the sentences like the following:
They are both alike.
They both go hand in hand.

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Composing clear sentences (II)

Place familiar information first in a clause, a sentence, or a paragraph, and put the new and unfamiliar information later.

More confusing: The epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer are the three layers of the skin. A layer of dead skin cells makes up the epidermis, which forms the body's shield against the world. Blood vessels, carrying nourishment, and nerve endings, which relay information about the outside world, are found in the dermis. Sweat glands and fat cells make up the third layer, the subcutaneous layer.

Less confusing: The skin consists of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is made up of dead skin cells, and forms a protective shield between the body and the world. The dermis contains the blood vessels and nerve endings that nourish the skin and make it receptive to outside stimuli. The subcutaneous layer contains the sweat glands and fat cells which perform other functions of the skin.

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Composing clear sentences

The verb should follow the subject as soon as possible.

Really Hard to Read: "The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2- terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit gene."

Less Hard to Read: "The smallest of the UR-F's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene."

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Avoiding redundancy

冗長 - I
◎Redundancy-I

In many instances, adjectives duplicate part of the nouns they modify.

For example,
Lonely isolation
Chief protagonist
Young infant
Grateful thanks
In these instances, avoid redundancy by deleting the adjectives.


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Usage of indefinite pronouns

不定代名詞について
◎Indefinite pronouns such as anyone, everyone, and someone must be carefully distinguished from any one, every one, and some one. They should never be used as single words unless they are equivalent to anybody, everybody, and somebody.

Examples:
She would not see anyone.
You may have any one of these books you choose.
Every one of these items should interest everyone.

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More on usage of periods/full stop

リスト内でのピリオドの使い方について
◎Use of periods in a list

In lists, numerals with periods are preferable to numerals with parentheses.
For example,
1. Call for help.
2. Stop the bleeding
3. Keep the patient warm.

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Usage of periods/full stop

ピリオドについて
◎Periods

Never use periods after centered heads and running heads. They are not necessary after captions or legends not in complete sentence form, after items in a column, and at the end of entries in an index.
Note that the items in a list should be parallel in construction, that is, all phrases or all sentences; however, if one item in the list is a complete sentence and therefore requires a period, then each item in the list, including phrases, should end with a period.

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Hyphenation in phrases

語句のハイフンについて
◎Hyphenation in phrases

Do not hyphenate phrases used as nouns in regular grammatical construction.

Wrong: Courses in how-to-read-and-study…Knowing how-to-study also connotes having right attitudes toward study.

Right: Courses in how to read and study…Knowing how to study also connotes having right attitudes toward study.

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Usage of "so that"

“so that”の使い方について

◎Usage of "so that"

"So that" means in order that, or with the result that. Not that the usage of "so that" is different from the word "so."

So that: I invested in bonds so that my money would be safe. (In order that it would be safe.)
So: I invested in bonds, so my money would be safe. (Consequently it would be safe.)

Note the use of the comma before "so."

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Avoiding redundant abbreviations

Avoid redundant abbreviations

Abbreviations such as AIDS and ATM are often followed by the words “syndrome” and “machine,” respectively. This is awkward because then the phrases will be read as “acquired immune deficiency syndrome syndrome” and “automated teller machine machine.” This can be avoided by verifying that the last letter of the abbreviation does not stand for the word that follows it.

Wordy: An LED diode was used as a light source in the detector.
Concise: An LED was used as a light source in the detector.

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How to mention "figures" and "tables" in the text

原稿内の図表の言及方法について

◎ In order refer to figures and tables in manuscripts, use words like ‘show’ and ‘present’.

Example 1: Table 1 shows the common exposure.
Example 2: The SEM images are presented in Fig. 2.

Subject/verb agreement: Remember, with singular "figure" or "table" - the following verb would be "shows" and for plural "figures" or "tables" the verb would be "show"

Other words to use are illustrate, demonstrate, provide, and list.

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Using "different" correctly

“Different” の使い方
◎ Usage of “Different”

Different: The word “different” is the opposite of the word “similar.” That is, if something differs from another, it is unlike it in some way.

In terms of usage, you can say that something is “different to” another (mostly in British English) as well as “different from” another (American English). However, in writing, “different from” is preferred.

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"Pandemic” vs. “endemic” vs. “epidemic”

“pandemic”, “endemic”, “epidemic”について
◎ “pandemic” vs. “endemic” vs. “epidemic”

Pandemic: A “pandemic” disease is one that spreads over a whole country or the whole world, i.e., an extensively epidemic disease.

Wrong: Origin of the 1918 Influenza Endemic and Its Implications on Public Health
Wrong: Origin of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic and Its Implications on Public Health
Right: Origin of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Its Implications on Public Health

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Ellipsis points - three or four?

文の省略記号について
◎ Points of Ellipsis: Three or Four
Ellipsis points (…) are a series of three dots, not four.
They are mainly used to indicate missing words in a quote. Ellipsis can be used to show missing words at the beginning, middle, and end of a sentence.

For example,
1. Beginning: “…mountains are not cones, and coastlines are not
circles, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.”
2. Middle: “Clouds are not spheres, …nor does lightning travel in a straight line.”
3. End: “Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, and coastlines are not circles, nor
does…”


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Correct tense usage

時制について

◎ Tenses

While writing a paper, it is very important to use the correct tense to report your findings correctly.

Conclusion: The conclusion is usually a mixture of the past, present, and future tenses. The future tense is typically used in the conclusion only to talk about future work. For example, “Further research on this protein will determine its exact structure.”

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Correct colon usage with other punctuation

その他のマークと同時に利用するコロン
◎ Usage of colon with other marks

Whenever a colon is used in conjunction with closing quotation marks, place it after the quotes. It should also follow a parenthesis.

For example,
He began with “The Village Blacksmith”: “Under the spreading chestnut tree…”
There are several advantages to growing the red mulberry (Morus rubra): Its fruits are edible…”

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Correct usage of question marks in indirect questions

間接疑問文での疑問符の利用
◎ Usage of question marks in indirect questions

Do not use a question mark after indirect questions.

For example,
Incorrect: John had wondered why?
Correct: John had wondered why.

Also, carefully study the following constructions:
Correct: It is well to ask, what is the precedent in this case? (Direct)
Also Correct: It is well to ask what is the precedent is this case. (Indirect)

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Use of italics in book titles

本の題名でのイタリック体の利用
◎ Use of italics in book titles

Titles of books are usually set in italics (indicated here by /…/): /Canterbury Tales/, /Naruto/

Be careful about the use of italics for a title that is placed after a preposition in constructions such as

Incorrect: In Jackson’s book on /Immunity to Parasitic Animals/…
Correct: In Jackson’s book on immunity to parasitic animals…
Also Correct: In Jackson’s book /Immunity to Parasitic Animals/…

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Use of commas in numbers

数字の表記について
◎ Use of commas in numbers

Four-figure numbers are usually set with commas (8,970). However, some house styles prefer no commas: 8970. Be sure to check your journal’s style guide for this rule.

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Word choice - "rare" or "scare"

”Rare” と “Scarce” について

◎ Rare vs. Scarce

Rare means distinctive or unusual.
For example, A rare virus was suspected.
Scarce means difficult to find or in limited quantity.
For example, Anthrax vaccine is scarce in developing countries.

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"Precede" vs. "Proceed"

”Precede” と “Proceed” について

◎ Precede vs. Proceed
These words are confused for reasons of similar pronunciation and spelling.
To “precede” means to go before or in front of.
For example, The parade was preceded by two conductors, tossing and twirling their batons.
To “proceed” means to go forward or move ahead.
For example, The parade then proceeded up the High Street.

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What to use - "Can not" or "Cannot"

”Cannot” と “Can not” について

◎ Cannot vs. Can not

“Cannot” is the preferred form except for the rare instance when a writer wishes to emphasize the “not.” For example, You can run and you can hide but you can not escape me.

The latter can also be used when the writer wants to be emphatic: No, you can not wash the dog in the river.

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Word choice - Ambiguous or Ambivalent

”Ambiguous” と “Ambivalent” について

◎ Ambiguous vs. Ambivalent
“Ambiguous” describes a thing or an action that can be interpreted as having several conflicting meanings or aspects in a given context.

For example, When I asked Stuart if he condemned my action he gave me an ambiguous answer

“Ambivalent” describes the state of mind of a person who has two contradictory attitudes.

For example, The French are ambivalent about royalty: they abolished their own monarchy but are very interested in the British royal family.

Note: Generally, only people are ambivalent.

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Appropriate usage of numbers (II)

数字の扱い(II)

◎Treatment of numbers (II)
A number should not be used to start a sentence. Instead, the number should be spelled out or the sentence should be rewritten such that the number is not at the beginning.

Wrong: 100,000 yen was the total amount.
Right: The total amount was 100,000 yen.

Wrong: 1941 saw our entry into the war.
Right: The year 1941 saw our entry into the war.

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Appropriate usage of numbers

数字の扱い(I)

◎ Treatment of numbers (I)

When many numbers appear in the same context in the same sentence, the style of the larger number should be used:

Poor: Only 132 men and ten women were interviewed.
Better: Only 132 men and 10 women were interviewed.

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More on Apostrophe

アポストロフィの利用について(III)

◎ Usage of the Apostrophe (III)

Use an apostrophe to form a contraction. The apostrophe replaces the missing letters.
For example:

Phrase: did not
Contraction: didn’t

Phrase: would not
Contraction: wouldn’t

Warning! Most publications consider contractions to be informal. Therefore, they should be avoided in academic writing.

Use an apostrophe to form the plural of a lowercase letter.

Incorrect: The spelling of Mississippi has four ss, four is, two ps and one M.

Correct: The spelling of Mississippi has four s’s, four i’s, two p’s and one M.


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Correct usage of Apostrophe (II)

アポストロフィの利用について(II)

◎ Usage of the Apostrophe (II)

To show possession (plural nouns)

With plural nouns that do not end in “s” or an “s” sound: To form of the possessive of such plural nouns, add an apostrophe plus an “s;” that is, Without apostrophe: growth of the bacteria

With apostrophe: the bacteria's growth

With plural nouns that end in “s” or an “s” sound: To form of the possessive of such plural nouns, add only an apostrophe; that is, Without apostrophe: silence for two minutes

With apostrophe: two minutes’ silence

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Correct usage of Apostrophe

アポストロフィの利用について(I)

◎ Usage of the Apostrophe (I)

To show possession (singular nouns)

With singular nouns that do not end in “s” or an “s” sound: To form the possessive of such singular nouns, add an apostrophe plus an “s”; that is, Without apostrophe: bat of John

With apostrophe: John’s bat

With singular nouns that end in “s” or an “s” sound: To form the possessive of such singular nouns, add only an apostrophe; that is, Without apostrophe: bat of James

With apostrophe: James’ bat

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Tips on Colon usage (V)

コロンについて(V)

◎ Colon (V)
Usage of Colon: with formal statements
Use a colon to introduce formal statements, e.g., quotations or paraphrases.

Incorrect: I have only two questions; Which is the most complete open cluster database? And how expensive is it?
Correct: I have only two questions: Which is the most complete open cluster database? And how expensive is it?

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Tips on Colon usage (IV)

コロンについて(IV)

◎ Colon (IV)

Usage of Colon: with independent clauses
Use a colon between two causes to signal a special relationship between the two clauses. That is, when the second clause explains the meaning of the first or expands its meaning.
Avoid: The doctor had no intention of visiting the patient; he was tired of the false calls.
Better: The doctor had no intention of visiting the patient: he was tired of the false calls.

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Tips on Colon usage (III)

コロンについて(III)

Colon (III)
To introduce equations: A colon is usually used to introduce equations. Note that, like lists, a colon should not be used after a preposition or verb.

Incorrect: The relation between x and y is given as: x = 2y
Correct: The relation between x and y is given as follows: x = 2y
Note that in the correct example, what precedes the colon is an independent clause

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Tips on Colon usage (II)

コロンについて(II)

Colon (II)

Vertical list
Incorrect: The three guiding principles of his life are:
(1) precision
(2) realism
(3) generality

Correct: His life reflects three guiding principles:
(1) precision
(2) realism
(3) generality

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Tips on Colon usage (I)

コロンについて(I)

Colon (I)
Horizontal lists: A colon is used to introduce horizontal and vertical lists. If a verb or preposition introduces the list, then the colon is not needed.

Horizontal list with preposition:
Incorrect: The milieu consists of: dendritic cells and T cells.
Correct: The milieu consists of two types of cells: dendritic cells and T cells.

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Semicolon (III)

セミコロンについて(III)

Semicolon (III)
Use semicolons between elements in a series when any of the elements have internal commas.

Incorrect: Cities he visited prior to his accident include Albany, New York, Cairo, Illinois, and Fresno, California.
Correct: Cities he visited prior to his accident include Albany, New York; Cairo, Illinois; and Fresno, California.

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More on semicolon usage

セミコロンについて(II)

Semicolon (II)
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, thus, etc.) that connects two independent clauses and a comma follows the adverb.

Incorrect: Fragments of habitat are often viewed as islands; however habitat fragmentation includes a wide range of spatial patterns.
Correct: Fragments of habitat are often viewed as islands; however, habitat fragmentation includes a wide range of spatial patterns.


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Tips to use "semicolon"

◎ Semicolon (I)

Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses when the clauses are closely related and with clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, etc.)

Correct: The sample was cooled under a zero-applied field, and after that, a field of 100 Oe was applied.

Correct: The sample was cooled under a zero-applied field; after that, a field of 100 Oe was applied.

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Usage of "Similarly" and "In the same manner"

“Similarly” と “In the Same Manner”について

◎ “Similarly” vs. “In the Same Manner”

Use “similarly” to refer to something that is not entirely the same as something that has just been stated.

For example, The randomized number at site 1 is obtained by computing the number of ones in the first Y(1). Similarly, the number at site 2 is obtained by considering the number of ones in rows Y(1) + 1 to Y(2).

Use “in the same manner” to emphasize that something is done in the exact same way as something that has just been stated.

For example, This result follows from Smith (1978; Proposition 2.2).
The values of a(c;q) are determined in the same manner.

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"In comparison with" or "Compared to"

“In comparison with” と “Compared to”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “In comparison with” and “Compared to”

Use the forms “in comparison with” and “compared to” as connectives to draw comparisons between two things.

Incorrect: Comparing with (to) B, the value of A was large.

Correct: In comparison with B, the value of A was large.

Also Correct: Compared to B, the value of A was large.

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"Instead" vs. "Rather"

“Instead” と “Rather”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “Instead” and “Rather”

Use “instead” to refer to something being done in place of something else that has just been mentioned.

For example, He instructed the patient to move his left hand; instead, he moved his right one.
Use “rather” to introduce an idea that is different from or opposite to the idea that you have stated previously.

For example, The rules of competition are not completely governed by price; rather, companies compete on the basis of the services provided.

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When to use "In theory" and "In practice"

“In theory” と “In practice”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “In theory” and “In practice”
In theory: Use “in theory” when you want to refer to something that may not be true or realized in real situations.

In practice: Use “in practice” to refer to things that actually happen, rather than those that are supposed to happen.

In theory, a rural education system exists, but in practice, there are few teachers to teach.

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Usage of "In conclusion" and "In summary"

“In conclusion” と “In summary”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “In conclusion” and “In summary”

In conclusion: Use “in conclusion” to present information that ends a discussion on something.
In conclusion, swimming is one of the best forms of exercises.

In summary: Use “in summary” to present information that is a summary of what has already been stated.
In summary, this training program was extremely useful for soccer players.


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"In particular" and "Particularly"

"In particular” と “particularly”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “In particular” and “particularly”

“In particular” is used as an introductory phrase, while “particularly” is used a normal adverb, and cannot be used as an introductory word.
In particular: The interpretation of the coupling behavior remains a matter of debate. In particular, the thickness dependence is not yet clear.
Particularly: The interpretation of the coupling behavior remains a matter of
debate, particularly the thickness dependence.

◎ Note that “In particular” and “Particularly” cannot be used interchangeably.
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Usage of 'Furthermore'

“Furthermore”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “Furthermore”
Use “furthermore” to introduce information that adds to or supports a previous point.
For example, Nested PCR enhanced the sensitivity by a factor of 10. Furthermore, we showed that it also enhanced the primer.

◎ Note that “further” and “furthermore” cannot always be used interchangeably.

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Usage of 'Further'

“Further”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “Further”
Use “further” as a formal alternative for “and” to provide additional information on a particular topic.

For example, Research has shown that it is important to invest in the intellectual development of a child. Further, we observe that this development is related to the child’s educational experience.

◎ Note that “further” and “furthermore” cannot always be used interchangeably.

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When to use "For example"

“For Example”の使い方について

◎ Usage of “For Example”
Use “for example” to explain or emphasize something by providing an example of it.

For example: There exist other resampling techniques that produce more economical variance estimates. For example, the jackknife produces more economical estimates than the bootstrap.
*Note that “for example” and “for instance” can be used interchangeably.

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Usage of However (III)

"However"の使い方について (III)

◎ Usage of “However” (III)
Use “however” when you want to write something that contrasts with the preceding sentence or clause. Although, it is usually used as an introductory word, it can also be used in the middle of a sentence. Note the placement of the commas and semicolons

For example, Two frequencies exist in the meandering solutions; however, only one represents the original frequency.

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Usage of However (II)

“However”の使い方について (II)

◎ Usage of “However” (II)
Use “however” when you want to write something that contrasts with the preceding sentence or clause. Although, it is usually used as an introductory word, it can also be used in the middle of a sentence; note the placement of the commas.

For example, Two frequencies exist in the meandering solutions. Only one of them, however, represents the original frequency of the periodic spiral.

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Usage of However

“However”の使い方について (I)

◎ Usage of “However” (I)

Use “however” when you want to write something that contrasts with the preceding sentence or clause. It is usually used as an introductory word; note the placement of the comma.

For example, Two frequencies exist in the meandering solutions. However, only one of them represents the original frequency of the periodic spiral.

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Usage of Comma

“Comma” の使い方について

◎Usage of Comma: In Dialogue
Use commas in dialogue to separate the speaker's exact words from the writer’s descriptive information within the sentence.

Example 1
“I’m so sorry,” consoled the doctor.

Example 2
Upon examining my circuit, Professor Yang exclaimed, “This circuit is too complex to be used effectively.”


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"In" "spite" or "inspite"

“In spite of” の使い方について

◎Usage of “In spite of”
It is incorrect to say “inspite of”; that is, “in” and “spite” are two separate words.

Wrong: There are only few studies on molecular mechanisms inspite of the sensitization of nociceptors to heat stimuli.

Right: There are only few studies on molecular mechanisms in spite of the sensitization of nociceptors to heat stimuli.

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Correct use of "despite"

“Despite” の使い方について

◎Usage of “Despite”
It is incorrect to say “despite of”

Wrong: Specific target tissues remained intact after treatment despite of the presence of inflammatory cells.
Right: Specific target tissues remained intact after treatment despite the presence of inflammatory cells

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Homogeneous or Homogenous

"Homogeneous” と “Homogenous” について

◎ “Homogeneous” vs. “Homogenous”

Homogeneous: It means consisting of similar parts or having a uniform structure or compositions that are similar in nature, e.g., homogeneous groups, bodies, mixtures, particles, principles, or population.

Homogenous: It means having a resemblance between structures because of common ancestral origins. It is commonly confused with homogeneous. However, it is used in biology and derived from “homogeny.”

Wrong: Characterization showed that the strains of Frankia are homogeneous.
Right: Characterization showed that the strains of Frankia are homogenous.

Wrong: The concerns raised by these policies are homogenous in nature.
Right: The concerns raised by these policies are homogeneous in nature.


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Few or "a few" (II)

“Few” と “a few” について(II)

◎ “Few” vs. “a few” (II)
Few: When few is used without “a,” it emphasizes that there are only a small number of people/things of a particular kind. It is used in a negative sense.

Intended Meaning: Not many studies are available…

Wrong: A few studies are available…
Right: Few studies are available…

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Few or "a few" (I)

“Few” と “a few” について(I)

◎ “A few” vs. “few” (I)
A few: It is used synonymously with “a small number of.”
Intended Meaning: A small number of studies have been conducted to investigate the expression of these proteins.

Wrong: Few studies have been conducted to investigate the expression of these proteins.
Right: A few studies have been conducted to investigate the expression of these proteins.

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“Elder” と “Older” について(II)

◎ “Older than” vs. “Elder than” (II)

It is incorrect to say “elder than,” but “older than” is correct.

Wrong: The study reports the incidence of multi-infarct dementia in a population elder than 76 years in the US.
Right: The study reports the incidence of multi-infarct dementia in a population older than 76 years in the US.
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Elder or older?

Elder” と “Older” について(I)

◎ “Elder” vs. “Older” (I)
The word “elder” is only used when referring to the age of people. However, “older” is used to refer to both people and things.

Use of elder (people): This hospital provides care for elder and dependent adults.
Use of older (people): This hospital provides care for older and dependent adults.
Use of older (things): The older layers of wood are heavier than the external layers.

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Different vs. Various

“Different” と “Various” について

◎Different vs. Various
Use “various” when you want to refer to several differences.

Wordy: The direct forces among polyelectrolytes in solutions of several different anions and cations were parametrized.

Concise: The direct forces among polyelectrolytes in solutions of various anions and cations were parametrized.

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"data" の使い方について(III)

◎Database vs. Dataset (III)
While data is a group of individual items, a “database” is the formal structure to carry the data for retrieval and analysis. A “dataset,” on the other hand, is a set of data maintained in a database.

Database: Each laboratory maintained a database of fingerprint patterns.
Dataset: Five datasets of preprocessed fingerprints were deleted from the database

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More on usage of "DATA"

data” の使い方について(II)

◎Usage of “data”: Countability (II)

It is wrong to say “four data” or “the number of data....” as it is an “uncountable” noun.
Wrong: The number of data was so large that combing through it to search for new features may not be feasible.
Right: The amount of data was so large that combing through it to search for new features may not be feasible.


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Correct usage of "DATA"

“data” の使い方について(I)

◎Usage of “data”: Singular or Plural (I)

Data is considered to be the plural form of the noun “datum,” and should thus be used with a plural verb, e.g., “These data are....” However, the singular verb is also widely used with data when data is referred to in a collective sense, e.g., “This data tells us....”
In formal or scientific writing, it is recommended that data be used as a plural word.

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Absorption vs Adsorption - II

“Adsorption” と “Absorption” について (II)

◎ Adsorption vs. Absorption
Adsorption: Adsorption is the physical process in which liquids, gases, or suspended matters adhere to the surfaces of adsorbent materials.

Wrong: The Absorption of Gases on Plane Surfaces of Glass
Right: The Adsorption of Gases on Plane Surfaces of Glass

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Absorption or Adsorption

Absorption と Adsorptionについて (I)

◎ Absorption vs. Adsorption (I)

Absorption: Absorption is the physical or chemical process in which ions, atoms, molecules, or ions enter a gas, liquid, or solid phase.

Wrong: The Adsorption of Solar Radiation in the Earth's Atmosphere
Right: The Absorption of Solar Radiation in the Earth's Atmosphere

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Example or Sample - what to use?

Example と Sample について

◎ Example vs. Sample

Example: An example of a particular class of objects has several of the typical features of that class, or is a representative of that class.

Wrong: Previously, Powell (1984) gave a sample of the censored least absolute deviations estimator.
Right: Previously, Powell (1984) gave an example of the censored least absolute deviations estimator.

Sample: A sample of a substance or product is a small quantity of it, to give you an idea of the complete product. Sample, in a scientific context, also refers to a small amount of a substance that is examined and analyzed.

Wrong: It is not possible to fit a model when only an example of sites is surveyed.
Right: It is not possible to fit a model when only a sample of sites is surveyed.

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Continual vs Continuous

“Continual” と “Continuous”について

◎ “Continual” vs. “Continuous”
Continual: This refers to something that stops and starts in a constant progression.

Wrong: Continuous ligation of the T cell receptor is necessary for the survival of T cells.
Right: Continual ligation of the T cell receptor is necessary for the survival of T cells.

Continuous: This refers to something that occurs constantly without stopping.

Wrong: The photochemical and non-photochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching was continually recorded.

Right: The photochemical and non-photochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching was continuously recorded


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Fever or Temperature?

Fever” と “Temperature”について

◎ “Fever” vs. “Temperature”

Fever is a “condition” wherein the body temperature increases above normal. It should not be confused with the word “temperature,” which is a measure of the condition fever. Note that temperature and fever should not be used interchangeably.

Wrong: She had a fever of 39.1 degree Celsius.
Right: She had a temperature of 39.1 degree Celsius,indicating a fever.

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Dilation vs Dilatation

“Dilation” と “Dilatation”について

◎ “Dilation” vs. “Dilatation”

Dilation: This refers to the “act” of dilating, i.e., the act of enlarging an opening or hollow structure, e.g., when blood vessels or pupils of eyes become wider or enlarge, they are dilating.

Wrong: The red cell velocity was closely correlated with the dilatation.
Right: The red cell velocity was closely correlated with the dilation.

Dilatation: This refers to the “condition” of being stretched or expanded, beyond normal dimensions.

Wrong: When the cervical dilation was 8 cm, the rate of Cesarean section performed was similar in both subjects.
Right: When the cervical dilatation was 8 cm, the rate of Cesarean section performed was similar in both subjects.


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Imply vs Infer (II)

Infer” と “Imply” について(II)

◎ “Infer” vs. “Imply” (II)
Infer: It means to “conclude” from evidence or to draw an inference from reasoning.

Wrong: From these results, we imply that cycle 23 should be
above average in size and a fast riser.
Right: From these results, we infer that cycle 23 should be
above average in size and a fast riser.

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Imply vs Infer

Imply” と “Infer” について(I)

◎ “Imply” vs. “Infer” (I)
Imply: It means to “suggest” a logical consequence or express something indirectly.

Wrong: They showed that the conversion was sensitive to viscosity, thus inferring that the largest barrier is substrate binding.
Right: They showed that the conversion was sensitive to viscosity, implying that the largest barrier is substrate binding.

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Dose or Dosage (II)

◎ “Dosage” vs. “Dose” (II)
Dosage: It refers to a “regime,” i.e., regulated administration of individual doses, in prescribed amounts. It is usually expressed as a quantity per unit time.

Wrong: The dose of desipramine was 4.5 mg/day.
Right: The dosage of desipramine was 4.5 mg/day.

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Dose or Dosage

Dose” と “Dosage”について(I)

◎ “Dose” vs. “Dosage” (I)
Dose: It refers to the “quantity” or “measured portion” of therapeutic agents (drugs, medicine, radiation, etc.) administered at one time. It also refers to the total quantity administered during a specified period.

Wrong: The patient was administered an initial dosage of 23 mg.
Right: The patient was administered an initial dose of 23 mg.

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Adapt vs adopt (II)

“Adopt” と “Adapt” について(II)

◎ “Adopt” vs. “Adapt” (II)
Adopt: To adopt something means to “use” it or to show a particular attitude towards it.
Intended Meaning: We used the technique of priming to study the nature of the cognitive representation.

Wrong: We adapted the technique of priming to study the nature of the cognitive representation.
Right: We adopted the technique of priming to study the nature of the cognitive representation

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Adapt vs Adopt (Word choice)

“Adapt” と “Adopt” について(I)

◎ “Adapt” vs. “Adopt” (I)

Adapt: To adapt something means to “change/modify” it to make it suitable for a new situation.

Intended Meaning: We changed the technique of single-fiber PCR for single–renal tubule PCR.
Wrong: We adopted the technique of single-fiber PCR for single–renal tubule PCR.
Right: We adapted the technique of single-fiber PCR for single–renal tubule PCR.

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More on capitalization

元素記号と化学反応の大文字表記について(I)

◎ Capitalization of reaction names preceded by element symbols (I)
Some reaction names are preceded by element symbols. The first letter of the reaction name is lowercased when used in the middle of a sentence. Whereas, the first letter of the reaction name is capitalized when used at the beginning of a sentence or in a title/heading.

Beginning of a sentence:
Wrong: N-oxidation of 2-AF was catalyzed by hepatic
microsomes from rats.
Right: N-Oxidation of 2-AF was catalyzed by hepatic
microsomes from rats


Middle of a sentence:
Wrong: However, N-Oxidation of MOCA was preferentially catalyzed.
Right: However, N-oxidation of MOCA was preferentially catalyzed.

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“locant”の化学名の大文字表記について

◎ Capitalization of chemical names with locants (III)
In chemical names with locants, the first letter of the syllabic
portion is capitalized when used in a title/heading (or at the beginning of a sentence).

In a title/heading:
Wrong: Treatment of 1-bromo-3-chloropropane Using PEG-600
Right: Treatment of 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane Using PEG-600


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“locant”の化学名の大文字表記について(I)

◎ Capitalization of chemical names with locants
In chemical names with locants, all syllabic portions are lowercased in the middle of a sentence. The first letter of the syllabic portion is capitalized when used at the beginning of a sentence or in a title/heading. (Note that only the first syllabic portion is capitalized for chemical names with locants at the beginning of a sentence.)


Middle of a sentence:
Wrong: LDA was added to solutions of 1-Bromo-3-Chloropropane.
Right: LDA was added to solutions of 1-bromo-3-chloropropane.

Start of a sentence/Title:
Wrong: 1-bromo-3-chloropropane solutions were used to extract
the tissues.
Right: 1-Bromo-3-chloropropane solutions were used to extract
the tissues.


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